ADHD---Treatment team---etc

Treatment team

The treatment team involves behavioral and medical specialists. Concerning behavior, teachers play a very important role. Their daily observation of the child and the use of standard evaluation tests can help in the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD. More specialized consultants within the school system, such as psychometrists, may also be available. Outside of the school setting, psychologists, social workers, and family therapists can also be involved in treatment.

The use of medications involves physicians, nurses, and pharmacists.

Treatment

Behavior treatment can consist of the monitoring of school performance and the use of standard evaluation tests. For older children, adolescents, and adults, support groups can be valuable. As well, ADHD patients can learn behavioral techniques that are useful in self-monitoring their behavior and making the appropriate modifications (such as a time out). Behavior treatment is useful in combination with drug therapy or as a stand-alone treatment in those cases in which the use of medication is not tolerated or is not preferred.

Medical treatment can consist of the use of drugs such as Ritalin that are intended to modify over-exuberant behavior, or other drugs that have differing targets of activity. Psychostimulant medications like Ritalin, Cylert, and Dexedrine increase brain activity by increasing the brain concentration of chemicals such as dopamine, which are involved in the transmission of impulses or by stimulating the receptors to which the chemicals bind. Psychostimulant medications can sometimes disrupt sleep, depress appetite, cause stomachaches and headaches, and trigger feelings of anger and anxiousness, particularly in people afflicted with psychiatric illnesses such as bipolar disorder or depression. For many people, the side effects are mild and can become even milder with long-term use of the drugs.

Antidepressant medications such as imipramine act by slowing down the absorption of chemicals that function in the transmission of impulses. Central alpha agonists are particularly used in the treatment of hyperactivity. By restricting the presence of neurotransmitter chemicals in the gap between neurons, drugs such as clonidine and guanfacine restrict the flow of information from one neuron to the next. There have been four reported cases of sudden death in people taking clonidine in combination with the drug methylphenidate (Ritalin), and reports of nonfatal heart disturbances in people taking clonidine alone.

Finally, medications known as selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors restrict the production of norepinephrine between neurons, which inhibits the sudden and often hyperactive "fight or flight" response.

Recovery and rehabilitation

After a patient has been stabilized, typically using medication, follow-up visits to the physician are recommended every few months for the first year. Then, follow-ups every three or four months may be sufficient. The use of medications may continue for months or years.

Recovery and rehabilitation are not terms that apply to ADHD. Rather, a child with ADHD can be assisted to an optimum functionality. Assistance can take the form of special education in the case of those who prove too hyperactive to function in a normal classroom; the child may be seated in a quieter area of the class; or by using a system of rules and rewards for appropriate behavior. Children and adults can also learn strategies to maximize concentration (such as list making) and strategies to monitor and control their behavior.

Clinical trials

Beginning in 1996, the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and the Department of Education began a clinical trial that included nearly 600 elementary school children ages seven to nine. The study, which compared the effects of medication alone, behavior management alone, or a combination of the two, found the combination to produce the most marked improvement in concentration and attention. Additionally, the involvement of teachers and other school personnel was more beneficial than if the child was examined only a few times a year by their family physician.

As of January 2004, a number of clinical studies were recruiting patients, including:

• Behavioral and functional neuroimaging study of inhibitory motor control. The basis of the inability to control behavior in ADHD was assessed using behavioral tests and the technique of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
• Brain imaging in children with ADHD. MRI was used to compare the connections between brain regions in children with and without ADHD.
• Brain imaging of childhood onset psychiatric disorders, endocrine disorders, and healthy children. MRI was used to investigate the structure and activity in the brains of healthy people and those with childhood onset psychiatric disorders, including ADHD.
• Genetic analysis of ADHD. Blood samples from a child with ADHD and his or her immediate family members were collected and analyzed to determine the genetic differences between ADHD and non-ADHD family members.
• Biological markers in ADHD. People with ADHD, their family members, and a control group of healthy people who had previously undergone magnetic resonance examination were assessed using psychiatric interviews, neuropsychological tests, and genetic analysis.
• Study of ADHD using transcranial magnetic stimulation. The technique, in which a magnetic signal is used to stimulate a region of the brain that controls several muscles, was used to investigate whether ADHD patients have a delayed maturation of areas of their nervous system responsible for such activity. Detectable differences could be useful in diagnosing ADHD.
• Clonidine in ADHD Children. The trial evaluated the benefits and side effects of two drugs (clonidine and methylphenidate) used individually or together to treat childhood ADHD.
• Nutrient intake in children with ADHD. The study determined if children with ADHD have a different eating pattern, such as intake of less food or a craving for carbohydrates, than children without ADHD. The information from the study would be used in probing the origins of ADHD and in devising treatment strategies.
• Preventing behavior problems in children with ADHD. The study was designed to gauge the effectiveness of a number of treatment combinations in preventing behavior that is characteristic of ADHD in children.
• Psychosocial treatment for ADHD Type I. The study focused on ADHD that is characterized by inattention. The aim of the study was to develop effective treatment strategies for Type I ADHD.
• Behavioral treatment, drug treatment, and combined treatment for ADHD. The effectiveness of the three treatment approaches was compared, and the interactions between different levels of the behavioral and drug treatments were examined.
• Attention deficit disorder and exposure to lead. The effect of past exposure to lead was studied in children with ADHD.

Prognosis

The outlook for a patient with ADHD can be excellent, if the treatment regimen is followed and other existing conditions and disabilities have been identified and are treated. Methylphenidate, the major psychostimulant used in the treatment of ADHD, has been prescribed since the 1960s. The experience gained over this time has established the drug as being one of the safest pharmaceuticals for children. Indeed, intervention can be beneficial. Researchers from the Massachusetts General Hospital reported in 1999 that drug treatment of children diagnosed with ADHD could dramatically reduce the future risk of substance abuse.

Special concerns

The diagnosis of ADHD continues to be controversial. While some children do benefit from the use of medicines, other children who behave differently than is the norm may be needlessly medicated. The inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior that are the hallmarks of ADHD can be produced by many other conditions. The death of a parent, the discomfort of a chronic ear infection, and living in a dysfunctional household are all situations that can cause a child to become hyperactive, uncooperative, and distracted.

Evidence since the 1960s has led to the consensus that the medications used to treat ADHD, particularly methylphenidate (Ritalin), pose no long-term hazards. However, research published in December 2003 documented that rats exposed to the drug tended to avoid rewarding stimuli and instead became more anxious. More research on the effects of long-term drug treatment in ADHD is scheduled.

ADHD---Demographics--etc

Demographics

ADHD is a common childhood disorder. It is estimated to affect 3–7% of all children in the United States, representing up to two million children. The percent in fact be even higher, with up to 15% of boys in grades one through five being afflicted. On average, at least one child in each public and private classroom in the United States has ADHD. In countries such as Canada, New Zealand, and Germany, the prevalence rates are estimated to be 5–10% of the population.

The traditional view of ADHD is that boys are affected more often than girls. Community-based samples have found an incidence rate in boys that is double that of girls. In fact, statistics gathered from patient populations have reported male-to-female ratios of up to 4:1. However, as the understanding of ADHD has grown since the early 1990s and as the symptoms have been better recognized, the actual number of females who are affected by ADHD may be more similar to males than previously thought.

Causes and symptoms

The cause of ADHD is unknown. However, evidence is consistent with a biological cause rather than an environmental cause (e.g., home life). Not all children from dysfunctional homes or families have ADHD.

For many years, it was thought that ADHD developed following a physical blow to the head, or from an early childhood infection, leading to the terms "minimum brain damage" and "minimum brain dysfunction." However, these definitions apply to only a very small number of people diagnosed with ADHD, and so have been rejected as the main cause.

Another once-favored theory was that eating refined sugar or chemical additives in food produced hyperactivity and inattention. While sugar can produce changes in behavior, evidence does not support this proposed association. Indeed, in 1982, the results presented at a conference sponsored by the U.S. National Institutes of Health conclusively demonstrated that a sugar- and additive-restricted diet only benefits about 5% of children with ADHD, mostly young children and those with food allergies.

The biological roots of ADHD may involve certain areas of the brain, specifically the frontal cortex and nearby regions. One explanation is that the executive functions are controlled by the frontal lobes of the brain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examination of subjects who are exposed to a sensory cue has identified decreased activity of regions of the brain that are involved in tasks that require attention. Another MRI-based study published in November 2003 also implicates a region of the brain that controls impulsive behavior. Finally, a study conducted by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) documented that the brains of children and adolescents with ADHD are 3–4% smaller than those of their ADHD-free counterparts. Additionally, the decreased brain size is not due to the use of drugs in ADHD treatment, the researchers concluded in a paper published in October 2002.

ADHD symptoms can sometimes be relieved by the use of stimulants that increase a chemical called dopamine. This chemical functions in the transmission of impulses from one neuron to another. Too little dopamine can produce decreased motivation and alertness. These observations led to the popular "dopamine hypothesis" for ADHD, which proposed that ADHD results from the inadequate supply of dopamine in the central nervous system.

The observations that ADHD runs in families (10–35% of children with ADHD have a direct relative with the disorder) point to an underlying genetic origin. Studies with twins have shown that the occurrence of ADHD in one twin is more likely to be mirrored in an identical twin (who has the same genetic make-up) than in a fraternal twin (whose genetic make-up is similar but not identical).

The genetic studies have implicated the binding, transport, and enzymatic conversion of dopamine. Two genes in particular have been implicated: a dopamine receptor (DRD) gene on chromosome 11 and the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) on chromosome 5.

There may be environmental factors that influence the development of ADHD. Complications during pregnancy and birth, excessive use of marijuana, cocaine, and/or alcohol (especially by pregnant women), ingestion of lead-based paint, family or marital tension, and poverty have been associated with ADHD in some people. However, many other ADHD sufferers do not display any of these associations.

Heavy use of alcohol by a pregnant woman can lead to malformation of developing nerve cells in the fetus, which can result in a baby of lower than normal birth weight with impaired intelligence. This condition, called fetal alcohol syndrome, can also be evident as ADHD-like hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsive behavior.

Diagnosis

ADHD is sometimes difficult to diagnose. Unlike the flu or a limb fracture, ADHD lacks symptoms that can be detected in a physical examination or via a chemical test. Rather, the diagnosis of ADHD relies on the presence of a number of characteristic behaviors over an extended period of time. Often the specialist will observe the child during high-stimuli periods such as a birthday party and during quieter periods of focused concentration. Diagnosis uses the DSM-IV criteria, originally published in 1994, in combination with an interview and assessment of daily activity by a qualified clinician. (As of December 20ised DSM criteria are pending. These revisions will reflect the increased awareness of the greater-than-perceived prevalence of ADHD in girls and women.)

The benchmarks for either inattention or for hyperactivity/impulsive behavior must be met. These benchmarks typically occur by the age of seven and are not exclusive to one particular social setting such as school. These benchmarks must have been present for an extended period of time, at least six months or more. There are nine separate criteria for each category. For diagnosis, six of the nine criteria must be met. Examples of diagnostic signs of inattention include difficulty in maintaining concentration on a task, failure to follow instructions, difficulty in organizing approaches to tasks, repeated misplacement of tools necessary for tasks, and tendency to become easily distracted. Examples of hyperactivity or impulsive behavior include fidgeting with hands or feet, restlessness, difficulty in being able to play quietly, excessive talk, and tendency to verbally or physically interrupt.

Because ADHD can be associated with the use of certain medications or supplements, diagnosis involves screening for the past or present use of medications such as anticonvulsant or antihypertensive agents, and caffeinecontaining drugs.

Diagnosis of ADHD can also be complicated by the simultaneous presence of another illness. Diagnosis involves screening for bipolar disorder, depression, eating disorder, learning disability, panic disorder (including agoraphobia), sleep disorder, substance abuse, or Tourette's syndrome. Almost half of all children (mostly boys) with ADHD display what has been termed "oppositional defiant behavior." These children tend to be stubborn, temperamental, belligerent, and can lash out at others over a minor provocation. Without intervention, such children could progress to more serious difficulties such as destruction of property, theft, arson, and unsafe driving.

Other, nonclinical information such as legal infractions (arrests, tickets, vehicle accidents), school reports, and interviews with family members can be valuable, as ADHD can be perceived as antisocial, erratic, or uncommon behavior.

A complete physical examination is recommended as part of the diagnosis. The examination offers the clinician an opportunity to observe the behavior of the person. More specific tests can also be performed. Children can be assessed using the Conner's Parent and Teacher Rating Scale. Adolescent and adult assessment can utilize the Brown Attention Deficit Disorder Scale. Impulsive and inattentive behavior can be assessed using the Conner's Continuous Performance Test (CPT) or the Integrated Visual and Auditory CPT. Girls can be specifically assessed using the Nadeau/Quinn/Littman ADHD Self-Rating Scale.

ADHD---Definition-etc

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is not a clinically definable illness or disease. Rather, as of December 2003, ADHD is a diagnosis that is made for children and adults who display certain behaviors over an extended period of time. The most common of these behavioral criteria are inattention, hyperactivity, and marked impulsiveness.

In the American description, there are three types of ADHD, depending on which diagnostic criteria have been met. These are: ADHD that is characterized by inattention, ADHD characterized by impulsive behavior, and ADHD that has both behaviors.

The European description of ADHD places the disorder in a subgroup of what are termed hyperkinetic disorders (hallmarks are inattention and over-activity).

Description

ADHD is also known as attention deficit disorder (ADD), attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity, hyperkinesis, hyperkinetic impulse disorder, hyperactive syndrome, hyperkinetic reaction of childhood, minimal brain damage, minimal brain dysfunction, and undifferentiated deficit disorder.

The term attention deficit is inexact, as the disorder is not thought to involve a lack of attention. Rather, there appears to be difficulty in regulating attention, so that attention is simultaneously given to many stimuli. The result is an unfocused reaction to the world. As well, people with ADHD can have difficulty in disregarding stimuli that are not relevant to the present task. They can also pay so much attention to one stimulus that they cannot absorb another stimulus that is more relevant at that particular time.

For many people with ADHD, life is a never-ending shift from one activity to another. Focus cannot be kept on any one topic long enough for a detailed assessment. The constant processing of information can also be distracting, making it difficult for an ADHD individual to direct his or her attention to someone who is talking to him or her. Personally, this struggle for focus can cause great chaos that can be disruptive and diminish self-esteem.

The neurological manifestations of ADHD are disturbances of what are known as executive functions. Specifically, the six executive functions that are affected include:

• the ability to organize thinking
• the ability to shift thought patterns
• short-term memory
• the ability to distinguish between emotional and logical responses
• the ability to make a reasoned decision
• the ability to set a goal and plan how to approach that goal

About half or more of those people with ADHD meet criteria set out by the American Psychiatric Association (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [DSM-IV]) for at least one of the following other illnesses:

• learning disorder
• restless leg syndrome
• depression
• anxiety disorder
• antisocial behavior
• substance abuse
• obsessive-compulsive behavior

Demographics

ADHD is a common childhood disorder. It is estimated to affect 3–7% of all children in the United States, representing up to two million children. The percent in fact be even higher, with up to 15% of boys in grades one through five being afflicted. On average, at least one child in each public and private classroom in the United States has ADHD. In countries such as Canada, New Zealand, and Germany, the prevalence rates are estimated to be 5–10% of the population.

The traditional view of ADHD is that boys are affected more often than girls. Community-based samples have found an incidence rate in boys that is double that of girls. In fact, statistics gathered from patient populations have reported male-to-female ratios of up to 4:1. However, as the understanding of ADHD has grown since the early 1990s and as the symptoms have been better recognized, the actual number of females who are affected by ADHD may be more similar to males than previously thought.

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